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Big Men Alternate term for headmen common in Melanesian societies. See headmen. bilateral descent Descent that is traced equally through both mother and father. bilocal residence The condition in which a newly married couple reside either with or near the groom’s parents or the bride’s parents. biological anthropology A subfield of anthro- pology that studies humans as a biological spe- cies. Also called physical anthropology. Biped An animal that walks on two legs. Bridewealth A form of marriage finance in which valuable gifts are given by the groom’s kin to the bride’s kin. carrying capacity The maximum population that a habitat can sustain. Caste A ranked group with membership deter- mined at birth. Chiefdom A type of society with an office of chief, most commonly hereditary; social rank- ing; and a redistributive economy. Clan A descent group consisting of two or more lineages that trace their origin to a mythical ancestor. class A group of people who have a similar rela- tionship to wealth, power, and prestige. Cline The variation of a biological trait along a geographic continuum. Human skin pigments show distribution along a cline from the equa- tor north and south. Colonialism Influence and dominance of one nation over another for the purpose of exploit- ing raw resources. The dominant nation-state establishes a physical presence and a colonial government. See imperialism; hegemony. commodity money Currency in the form of valued objects such as shells or gold. Community An association of people who share a common identity, including geographic boun - daries, common language, and culture. comparative method The methodological ap- proach of comparing data. Anthropologists use the comparative method. consanguineal relatives Kin related by blood. contagious magic A type of magic based on the idea that something that has contact with a person or animal contains some essence of that being and that magic performed on the item will have the same effect as if performed on the being. contemporary human variation studies The study of the biological variation in living humans. cross-cousin Ego’s mother’s brother’s child and father’s sister’s child. cultural anthropology A subfield of anthro- pology that focuses on human sociocultural adaptations. cultural ecology The study of the processes by which a society adapts to its environment. cultural evolution A model for the develop- ment of society that delineates a sequence of cultural change over time. cultural relativism The perspective that any aspect of a culture must be viewed and evalu- ated within the context of that culture. cultural resource management (CRM) The conservation and management of archaeologi- cal sites to protect them. Culture The sum total of the knowledge, ideas, behaviors, and material creations that are learned, shared, and transmitted primarily through the symbolic system of language. These components create a pattern (that changes over time) and serve as guides and standards of behavior for members of the society. The term culture is used in the abstract as well as to refer to a specific culture. culture shock A label for the resultant feelings of homesickness, disorientation, helplessness, and frustration that occur after exposure to an unfamiliar culture.descent group A group of people who share identity and come from a common ancestor. descriptive linguistics The part of anthropo- logical linguistics that focuses on the mechan- ics of language. Deviance The violation of an ideal pattern of behavior within a society. Diffusion The voluntary borrowing and exchange of items or ideas between cultures. Diffusionism Early theoretical school that ex- plained the origin and spread of artifacts and ideas through borrowing between cultures. displacement The ability of humans to com- municate symbolically about distant time and place. division of labor The manner of dividing work based on criteria such as age or gender. double descent A descent system with two sep- arate lines of descent that are both recognized at the same time. Dowry A form of marriage finance in which valuable gifts are given by the bride’s kin to the groom’s kin. ecofacts The remains of plants, animals, or nat- urally occurring nonorganic substances. ecological model A model that views a culture as part of a larger global ecological system with each aspect of the system interacting with all of the other parts. Egalitarian Refers to members of a society hav- ing equal access to status, power, and wealth within the same category such as age or gender. egalitarian society A society in which individ- uals within the same category of age and gen- der have equal access to wealth, prestige, and power. Emic An insider’s view of a culture. This per- spective in ethnography uses the categories and ideas that are relevant and meaningful to the culture under study. Enculturation The process of learning one’s culture while growing up in it. Endogamy A cultural rule that dictates that one must marry within a designated group. ethnic group A type of subculture character- ized by members sharing a culture of origin, often one originating in another country. ethnoarchaeologyThe study of contemporary societies’ behaviors and uses of material objects in order to better understand how human behav- ior translates into the archaeological record. Ethnocentrism Making value judgments based on one’s own culture when describing aspects of another culture. Ethnography A written description of a culture based on data gathered from fieldwork. ethnolinguistics A field of study in linguistics that analyzes the relationship between a lan- guage and culture. Ethnology The comparative study of cultures with the aim of presenting analytical general- izations about human culture. Ethnomusicology The study of the music of a contemporary society within the context of that society. Etic An outsider’s view of a culture. This per- Spective in ethnography uses the categories of the anthropologist’s culture to describe the culture under study. evolutionary-ecological model A paradigm of human culture that combines both the neoevolutionary and ecological perspectives. Exogamy A cultural rule that dictates that one must marry outside of a designated group (e.g., outside of one’s lineage, clan, or village). experimental archaeology An aspect of archae- ology in which experiments are performed to learn how prehistoric artifacts and features were made and used. extended family Two or more nuclear families who are related by blood and who reside in the same household, village, or territoryfamily band A type of band organization con- sisting of nuclear family units that move inde- pendently within an area. Joins others when resources are plentiful; travels alone at other times. family of orientation A person’s childhood fam- ily, where enculturation takes place. family of procreation A kin group consisting of an individual and the individual’s spouse and children. features Nonportable evidence of technology at archaeological sites, such as roadways and fire hearths. fiat money Paper currency backed by a nation- state’s claim of its value. fictive kin Unrelated family friends who are addressed by kin terms. Folate A metabolite essential for sperm and em- bryonic neural tube development that is de - stroyed by UVB. Foraging A food-procurement strategy that involves collecting wild plant and animal foods. forensic anthropologist An applied biological anthropologist concerned with legal issues. Frequently focuses on the identification of skeletal material and the cause of death. formal interviews An ethnographic research method in which planned, scripted questions are asked of informants. gender The sociocultural construct of masculine and feminine roles and the qualities assigned to these roles. gender role The tasks and behaviors assigned by a culture to each sex. genealogical method The ethnographic meth od of recording information about kinship relationships using symbols and diagrams. generalized reciprocity Institutionalized gift giving and exchange between close kin; ac- counts are not kept, and there is no expecta- tion of immediate return. globalizationIn anthropology, the rapid spread of economic, social, and cultural systems across continents. half-marriageA custom among the Yurok of northwestern California and other patri- centered groups in which a man pays partial bridewealth and lives with the bride’s family, and the couple’s children belong to the wife and her family. Headmen Types of leaders found in tribal and chiefdom societies whose leadership is based on persuasive power. See Big Men. Hegemony The ideological domination by one cultural group over another through institu- tions, bureaucracy, education, and sometimes force. See imperialism; colonialism. heliocentric diffusionism Diffusionist school that pointed to ancient Egypt as the center of cultural innovations and inventions that spread around the world. heterogeneous culture Cultural group that shares only a few components. Typical of large societies such as states, where there are many subcultures such as ethnic groups. heterosexualitySexual attraction between mem- bers of the opposite sex. historical archaeology A subfield of archaeol- ogy that studies the remains of cultures that existed during the time of written records but about which little was recorded. historical linguistics The study of the history of languages, including their development and relationship to other languages. historicalismTheoretical school, established by Franz Boas, who hypothesized that each cul- ture had its own particular history that could be documented through repeated ethnogra- phies. Comparisons of many such histories. change. Also termed historical particularism; American historicalism. holistic An integrated perspective that assumes interrelationships among the parts of a sub- ject. Anthropology studies humans from a holistic perspective, including both biological and cultural aspects. homogeneous culture Cultural group that shares most ideas, values, knowledge, behav- iors, and artifacts. Typical of small cultural groups such as foragers. Homo sapiens The taxonomic designation for humans. homosexualitySexual attraction between mem- bers of the same sex. horticultureA food-procurement strategy based on crop production without soil preparation, fertilizers, irrigation, or use of draft animals. householdA common residence-based eco- nomic unit. humanistic anthropology A label for research that focuses on individuals and their creative responses to cultural and historical forces. ideal culture What people believe they should do. imitative magic A type of magic based on the notion that working magic on an image of an animal or person will cause the same effect on the actual animal or person. impact studies Ethnographic study of a situa- tion to document effects of change. May take place during and/or after a program of cul- tural restructuring. imperialismInfluence and authority of one nation over another, often associated with ex- ploitation of natural and human resources. See colonialism; hegemony. informal interviews An ethnographic research method using open-ended questions that al- low informants to talk about what they deem important. informants Native members of a society who give information about their culture to an ethnographer. innovationSomething totally new. inventionSomething new that is created based on items or ideas that already exist. judgment sample A sample that is chosen based on the judgment of the ethnographer. Key informants are chosen using this method. key informant An ethnographic interview sub- ject who has been selected by judgment sam- ple; a knowledgeable native who plays a major role in teaching the ethnographer about the informant’s culture. kindredA term associated with bilateral descent in which relatives calculate their degree of relationship to Ego. In a kindred, only sib- lings share the exact same set of relatives. kinesics The use of the body to communicate— gestures, posture, and facial expression. kinship system The complexity of a culture’s rules governing the relationships between af- final and consanguineal kin. kinship term A word that designates a social relationship between individuals who are re- lated by blood or marriage. lawThe cultural rule formulated by a society and backed up by sanctions. levirateA marriage custom in which a widow marries her deceased husband’s brother. lexigrams Geometric figure symbols used to teach apes symbolic communication. life history The ethnographic method of gath- ering data based on extensive interviews with individuals about their memories of their cul- ture from childhood through adulthood. life shock A sudden unexpected experience that causes one to faint, become hysterical, or vomit. More likely to occur when immersed in an unfamiliar setting. lineageA unilineal descent group that traces its consanguineal relatives back to a common ancestor. linguistics A subfield of anthropology that in- cludes the study of the structure, history, and social aspects of human language. low energy budget The expenditure of minimum energy to acquire the basic needs for survival. magic The techniques used to manipulate su- pernatural forces and beings. mana An impersonal supernatural force that flows in and out of people and objects. market exchange The trading of goods and services through the use of currency. matrifocal residence A residence group con- sisting of a woman and her children residing without co-residence of a husband. matrilineageA unilineal descent group with membership passed on through females and traced to a common female ancestor. matrilocal residence A postmarriage residence rule that requires the bride and groom to live in or near the residence of the bride’s mother. matri-patrilocal residence A temporary resi- dence form in which the groom moves to live with the bride’s family until bridewealth pay- ments are complete and the couple take up permanent patrilocal residence. medical anthropology The study of illness and health care from the perspective of anthropology. melaninA pigment in the outer layer of the skin. It is responsible for skin color and blocks UVB from damaging lower layers of the skin. microcultureThe smallest subgroup within a culture that shares specific cultural features such as values or behaviors. middenArchaeological term to designate an area of discard; a trash heap. mobile art Art forms that are not fixed to any place and can be moved or carried. moietyAn association that divides a society in half. Moiety affiliation is inherited unilineally and carries obligations to other members. monogamyA form of marriage in which one woman is married to one man. monotheistic A belief system that focuses on one all-powerful supernatural being. morphemeThe smallest combination of sounds in human speech that carry a meaning. multilinear evolution An evolutionary model of culture emphasizing different development patterns for societies in different habitats. narrative ethnography See refl exive ethno graphy. nation-stateA group that shares a common cultural heritage, territory, and legitimate political structure. negative reciprocity An economic exchange aimed at receiving more than is given. neoevolutionary model A model of cultural ev- olution based on types of food- procurement strategies and the sociocultural adaptations that resulted from them. neolocal residence A postmarriage residence rule that requires the bride and groom to set up an independent household away from both sets of parents. nomadic pastoralism A herding adaptation that makes the most of available forage for animals by frequent habitat moves. nuclear family A group consisting of a married couple and their children. Oldowan tools A very early African tool- making tradition associated with the first members of Homo. optimal-foraging model A model that aims at understanding how foragers optimize the gathering of food. pan-tribal sodality An association group that crosscuts a tribe and unites tribal members, not always voluntary. See sodality. parallel-cousinEgo’s mother’s sister’s child and father’s brother’s child. parietal art Art executed on permanent features such as cave walls, rock shelters, and large blocks of rock. participant observation The process of an an- thro pologist doing ethnographic fieldwork. participant observer The role of an anthropol- ogist doing ethnographic fieldwork. pastoralismA food-producing strategy based on herding. patrilineageA unilineal descent group passed on through males and traced to a common male ancestor. patrilocal band A type of band consisting of related males and their wives and children who stay together and forage as a group. patrilocal residence A postmarriage residence rule that requires the bride and groom to live in or near the residence of the groom’s father. phonemeThe smallest unit of sound in speech that will indicate a difference in meaning. phonologyThe general study of the sounds used in human speech. phratryA group of two or more clans that have a tie to one another, often based on a his- torical relationship; obligations and rights are expected between clans in this relationship. physical anthropology See biological anthropology. plasticityThe pliability or malleability of a bio- logical feature. An individual’s genetic growth potential is malleable depending on nutrition, maternal health, and exposure to sunlight. polyandryMarriage of one woman to two or more men. polygamyMultiple spouse marriage. polygynyMarriage of one man to two or more women. polytheistic A belief system consisting of many supernatural beings of approximately equal power. postmodernismA complex theoretical per- spective that applies a humanistic approach to ethnography with a focus on individuals and their voices. postmodernist One who uses the paradigm of postmodernism. power The ability to influence or cause people or groups to do certain things that they would not do otherwise. prehistoric archaeology The analysis of the ma- terial remains of cultures that existed before the time of written records. priest A full-time supernatural practitioner who is part of a bureaucracy. primates Animals in the order Primates; includes humans, apes, monkeys, and prosimians. primatologyThe study of nonhuman primates. prophet A person, usually charismatic, who has had direct communication with a god. Often receives a message that articulates a plan of action for the group. proxemics The study of the use of space in communication. psychological anthropology The study of the relationship between culture and personality. quadrupedAn animal that walks on four limbs. raceBiologically: a group within a species that shares a cluster of genetically determined traits. No such trait clusters occur among Homo sapiens. Culturally: a social construct based on perceived cultural differences. random sample A sample method in which all members of a population have a statistically equal chance of being chosen. rank society A society in which the individual’s access to prestige and wealth is limited by the number of positions available. A society may be stratified by rank, such as in a chiefdom. rapport A harmonious relationship. real culture What people can be observed to do. reciprocityA form of exchange that involves the mutual giving and receiving of food and other items between people who are socially equal. recursionA feature of language that allows for the generation of variation in sentences by using embedded or added clauses and phrases. redistributionA system of exchange in which wealth is reallocated; found in chiefdom and state societies. reflexive ethnography An approach to field- work that focuses on the personal experiences and perspectives of the ethnographer, as well as the voices of the native members of a cul- ture. Also called narrative ethnography. revitalization movement An organized move- ment, which occurs during times of change, that involves perceived loss of traditional cul- tural values. A prophet or charismatic leader predicts a revitalized society if a program is followed. rites of intensification Rituals, often seasonal, that reinforce group solidarity, cultural val- ues, and group social and political status relationships. rites of passage Rituals associated with the social movement of an individual from one culturally defined role and status to another during the passage from birth to death. ritual Behavior that is formalized, is regularly repeated, and has symbolic content. roleThe culturally assigned behaviors and ex - pectations for a person’s social position. Sapir-Whorf hypothesis A hypothesis about the relationship between language and culture that states that language constructs perceptions. segmentary lineage A descent group consist- ing of sublineage sets. sex The biological aspect of being female, male, or other, assigned at birth based on external genitalia. sexual dimorphism The biological and behav- ioral differences between males and females. shabano A Ya˛nomamö village. shamanA part-time practitioner of the supernat- ural who has special powers to mediate between the supernatural world and the community. silent language All of a culture’s nonverbal symbolic systems of communication, includ- ing kinesics and proxemics. sister exchange A common type of marriage con- sisting of the marriage of cross-cousins. Men exchange their sisters as marriage partners. siteThe location of archaeological remains such as artifacts and features. slash and burn The removal of plant materials by cutting and burning preparatory to plant- ing. Also called swidden horticulture. social control A process involving a structure and mechanisms to ensure that people do not violate the society’s accepted forms of behavior. social stratification Ascribed and achieved dif- ferences between two classes within a society. sociolinguistics A subfield of linguistics that analyzes the relationship between language and culture with a focus on how people speak in social contexts. sodalityA group that crosscuts a society and whose membership is based on common inter- est rather than kinship or residence. sororateA marriage custom in which a widower marries a sister of his deceased wife. stateA type of society characterized by a po- litical structure with authority that is legally constituted. status A person’s position in society. stratified random sample A random sample with divisions into categories such as age or socioeconomic level. stratified society A society with unequal access to resources within the same gender and sta- tus group. stratified state society A society in which institu- tions are based on coercive power and author- ity. Inequality exists within social groupings. string figures A type of entertainment in which designs, or figures, are created by weaving string on the fingers. Patterns, tricks, and catches are performed and are often accom- panied by stories. structured interviews See formal interviews. Subculture Smaller group within a large cul- tural complex. Behaviors, values, attitudes, and artifacts are shared by group members. supernatural beings Invisible beings that exhibit form, personality, attitudes, and powers. supernatural belief A belief that transcends the observable, natural world. supernatural forces Unseen powers that are not personified and may be manipulated to achieve good or evil. syntax The manner in which minimum units of meaning (morphemes) are combined. Technology The knowledge, tools, and skills used by humans to manipulate their environ - ments. Totem Mythical or symbolic ancestor of a clan. traditions Cultural choices consistently made by a society and practiced generation to generation. Transhumance A variety of pastoralism in which herds are moved seasonally. Tribe A type of society marked by egalitarian social structure, based on horticultural and pastoral economies, and integrated by various types of kinship organizations and sodalities. ultraviolet radiation A part of the electromag- netic energy from the sun that is not visible to the human eye. unilineal evolution Early theoretical school that postulated that all cultures proceeded through a series of successive stages. unstructured interviews See informal interviews. urbanization studies Studies of the adaptations made by rural peoples as they move to cities. uterine descent group See matrilineage. UVBUltraviolet radiation from the sun in the B wave length. uxorilocal residence The custom of living with the wife’s relatives after marriage. virilocal residence The custom of living with the husband’s relatives after marriage.
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